what is analogy how to evaluate analogical arguments

Let’s eliminate the ambiguity by using the reasonable-premises approach in revising premise 2; in that case it is as follows: 2. They can be represented by this form: Background argument—an argument that shows that the inferred similarity (of an analogical argument) follows from the basic similarity—that is, an argument that shows that the basic similarity is relevant. The importance of analogies The success of design arguments is dependent on how close the analogy works to compare the natural world with things humans have made.If the natural world can be shown to be complex and organised without any appeal to outside influences, then the analogy is significantly weakened. Analogical reasoning is a fundamental aspect of human cognition: People, even young children, engage spontaneously in analogical reasoning to make sense of unfamiliar situations. Inductive Analogy An inductive analogy draws a comparison between cases and then suggests that since the analogy holds in some respects, . They have therefore kidnapped you, and last night the violinist’s circulatory system was plugged into yours, so that your kidneys can be used to extract poisons from his blood as well as your own. Somewhat surprisingly, analogies compose the basis of all reasoning, whether inductive to inductive. The phrase clear and present danger, like the term smart in the Einstein example, is a general term that seems to apply to a greater degree in premise 1 than in premise 2. Reasoning by analogy. Analogical reasoning is a significant cognitive process that has heretofore not been modelled by artificial intelligence researchers in a computationally tractable manner. In By Parallel Reasoning Paul Bartha proposes a normative theory of analogical arguments and raises questions and proposes answers regarding (i.) criteria for evaluating analogical arguments, (ii.) the philosophical justification for ... In this case the analogical inference is that the law should be extended to require the use of motorcycle helmets. They had noticed a red stain while piecing together jars excavated from an Iranian site. Written by an expert in the field, this book provides a coherent and structured narrative appropriate for students in need of an introduction to the topic of reasoning as well as researchers seeking well-rounded foundational content. It is plausible to suppose that this shift contributes to the apparent success of the argument, and thus that the argument commits the fallacy of equivocation. Note that despite the long list of similarities the author of the argument has with her friend Mary, the argument by analogy is quite weak. How much more expensive can houses in Los Angeles be? Still, any logical strength it gains from that research program is borrowed from the background argument—that is, from the explanatory argument about crystals developed by the researchers. This doesn’t seem relevant, since it doesn’t make English a better candidate for preservation in the face of difficulties. Strength of an analogy Several factors affect the strength of the argument from analogy: The relevance (positive or negative) of the known similarities to the similarity inferred in the conclusion. For some superficial reason Truman concluded that, like Pendergast, Stalin was a man one could deal with, a man of his word. 1. Then clarify it in standard clarifying format. Written by experts in the field, this volume presents a comprehensive investigation into the relationship between argumentation theory and the philosophy of mathematical practice. Basic similarity: is a college program (implicit). This book introduces the basic inferential patterns of formal logic as they are embedded in everyday life, information technology, and science. First, the basic similarity must be relevant—that is, it must count toward the presence of the inferred similarity. Analogy. Solution. Evaluating Analogical Arguments 254. The second part of the total evidence condition for frequency arguments operates the same way. Is it improper to demolish the tractor? she:Well,for one thing,we couldn't afford to buy a house there. In this case, if the similarity is relevant it is because the background argument is a sound explanatory argument (of a sort we will cover thoroughly in the next chapter) that establishes that the red stains (the basic similarity) have properties that are best explained as caused by wine (the inferred similarity). But for an inductive argument to be logically strong it must not only satisfy the correct form condition; it must also satisfy the total evidence condition. Press ESC to cancel. If they had something like that happen in the English department, would they do away with that? analogical arguments are often directed towards establishing prima facie plausibility. Uses of Analogies 248. When a persuasive car salesman won’t let you open the hood to inspect the motor, it may be prudent to shop elsewhere. My high school physics teacher is smart, though not as smart as Einstein. This nicely fixes the logical problem, but at the cost of what is pretty obviously a false premise. For example, in the preceding chapter we looked briefly at the argument Every Japanese car I’ve ever owned has been well built, so that Toyota is probably well built. As Freud notes, they can make you feel at home—and for that reason they can be especially persuasive. Causal Arguments. There are many dissimilarities. Inferred similarity—in an argument from analogy, the property that the inferred analog is alleged to have because the basic analog has it. [2] This leaves the first part of the total evidence condition as the sole positive source of logical strength. In the free speech argument, the basic similarity is that they create a clear and present danger. F is the basic similarity, the property that the two analogs share, presumably without controversy. But this is irrelevant; catalog numbers are not like scores flashed by Olympic judges, with higher numbers going to better courses. These reasons apply to wearing motorcycle helmets too, but since there is no law requiring people to wear motorcycle helmets, there should not be a law requiring people to wear seat belts. The mistake of using an argument from analogy in which the basic similarity is not relevant or in which there are relevant dissimilarities between the basic and inferred analogs. In an argument from analogy, the property that the inferred analog is alleged to have because the basic analog has it. Further, it suggests a way of reasoning about which ones are not protected—namely, by thinking about the possible dangers caused by the speech in question. You’re having trouble with your boss—why should a conflict in an employer–employee relationship be treated any differently? deontic logic, modal logic).Thus, the following argument is invalid: (1) If Japan did not exist, we would . We've been looking at some broad areas in which effective logical and critical thinking are important, and which generate distinct approaches to the questions they address. Although not all arguments from analogy are unsound, they do establish their conclusions far less often than any other sort of argument. Analogical reasoning is effective in capturing linguistic regularities. Breceda and lifeguards up and down the beach stressed the dangers of sleeping on the beach at night. In considering whether an argument from analogy has satisfied the total evidence condition, ask next. Arguments from analogy declare that because two items are the same in one respect they are the same in another. Of course it does. the use of a series of examples to explain a concept. Basic analog: English department. (The fact that this technique juggles three different arguments makes this a tricky category at first.) Chapter Summary. Decide whether tip A1 or A2 should be used when evaluating the following arguments by analogy. Technically, it was a figurative analogy, not a literal one, because the two processes are not essentially the same. On the other hand, analogical arguments play an important psychological role in suggesting lines of reasoning, and so should be cultivated for that purpose. For each of the arguments in set (a), do three things: (i) state an irrelevant dissimilarity, and explain, (ii) explain any relevant dissimilarities, and (iii) state your evaluation of the argument’s logic based on this and the previous exercise. Test your knowledge of tips A2 and A1 by answering the following questions. Counter Argument by Analogy. (Brackets, as usual, indicate that premise 2 is implicit, but we also must supply to premise 1 the part about authority figures.). It treats the argument from analogy as an inductive form of argument that requires no reference to similarity. In deductive reasoning, you start with an assumption and then make observations or rational . Suppose that, in his junior year, a big-city newspaper offered him a reporter’s job with a three-year guarantee at an unheard-of salary. In this chapter we will look first at "good" reasoning and then at several of the standard mistakes in reasoning, called logical fallacies. As you might imagine, the rules that apply to evaluating arguments also apply to sub-­‐arguments. And the inferred similarity is that the academic programs are excellent. A1. Claim P is that Mary is a person that i) lives on the same block as the author of the argument, ii) has a husband with the same name as the author of the argument, iii) her husband was born on the same year as the one making the argument, iv) she has the same number of children, v) drives the same make of car, vi) went to the same high school, vii) goes to the same church, viii) has a last name that starts with 'N', ix) Mary won the power ball. Do we ever evaluate analogical arguments in isolation? She lives on the same block as I do, her husband and my husband were born the same year, we have the same number of children, drive the same make of car, went to the same high school, go to the same church, her last name starts with 'N' and so does mine, we have so much in common, so it only seems natural that I will win the lottery too! Consequently, little is known about the performance of analogical rea-soning over time. Inferred analog: basketball program. Because this term says nothing about what precisely has gone wrong with the argument, it is better to explain more specifically how it is that some necessary condition for soundness has not been satisfied. Eating yogurt, we Know how to formulate and evaluate an argument by analogy. The familiar situation suggests ways of I guess in an analogy, I don’t think J. Edgar Hoover, for example, ever advised everybody he was investigating that they were being investigated.”, Q: “But he, J. Edgar Hoover, wasn’t running a university.”—Lingua Franca. Why is it important to be able to identify a fallacy? But is the danger caused by the wartime expression of potentially subversive ideas as clear and as present as the danger caused by the false shout of fire in a theater? Arguments from analogy typically contend that because two items are the same in one respect, they are the same in another respect. Is the basic similarity relevant? Graduate courses, for example, are usually assigned higher catalog numbers than are undergraduate courses. I bet it will be scary too. They can be represented by this form: 1. Now, suppose a tractor is about to run over a child. Second, if you cannot see what the background argument is, you should normally resist the temptation to judge it as logically strong until you better understand the background argument. The primary reason there are laws requiring people to wear seat belts is because such use saves many lives and wearing a seat belt is not inconvenient or causes the wearer any real degree of discomfort, and almost universally people would rather live than die in accidents, all of these reasons apply to wearing motorcycle helmets too, so the law should be extended to require the use of a motorcycle helmet. Here is the clarified argument. Date last modified: March 21, 2017. Records the information and the relevance of the most boring years of my life going... 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